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With the advancement of social sciences and technology, energy has become an essential component of daily life, powering everything from personal electronics like smartphones and laptops to modes of transportation. While traditional energy sources like crude oil offer high efficiency, their environmental drawbacks—such as significant carbon dioxide emissions—are increasingly problematic in modern society. Emerging renewable energies like solar and wind hold immense potential, yet their reliance on environmental conditions makes it challenging to consistently power devices requiring continuous operation, such as electric vehicles. This has led to a focus on improving electronic energy storage equipment, particularly batteries tailored for diverse applications.
In recent years, significant research has been conducted on various battery types, including alkaline batteries (like Fe/Ni and Zn/Mn), conventional lead-acid batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries, and lithium-ion batteries, which have gained considerable attention. Among these, lithium-ion batteries are particularly favored due to their high specific energy, operational voltage, long cycle life, low self-discharge rate, lack of memory effect, and eco-friendly nature. Widely used in consumer electronics like mobile phones and laptops, they also hold promise for next-generation hybrid and fully electric vehicles.
Lithium-ion batteries operate on a shuttle mechanism where lithium ions move back and forth between the positive and negative electrodes during charging and discharging. Despite progress, challenges remain in achieving higher energy densities. Japan’s NEDO has set a goal of 700Wh/kg by 2030, while the theoretical energy density of lithium-air batteries could reach 12,000Wh/kg, surpassing this target. Before delving deeper into lithium-air batteries, let us first explore lithium-ion batteries in detail.
### Principle of Lithium-Ion Batteries
A lithium-ion battery comprises three main components: a positive electrode (commonly a layered structure of lithium cobaltate or lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide, a spinel-structured lithium manganate, or an olivine-structured lithium iron phosphate), a negative electrode (typically graphite), and an electrolyte. Redox reactions occur at the electrodes, with the electrolyte serving as an ion transport medium. During discharge, lithium ions migrate through the electrolyte to the positive electrode under the influence of an internal electric field, while electrons flow externally to the positive electrode, enabling device operation. Charging reverses this process.
### Limitations of Lithium-Ion Batteries
Several factors impact lithium-ion batteries, including temperature, rapid charge/discharge rates, theoretical capacities, and energy density. Two critical areas restricting their performance are energy density and electrode material capacity. Energy density, or specific energy, measures the energy stored per unit mass or volume. Current commercial lithium-ion batteries achieve around 500Wh/kg, falling short of gasoline’s 13,000Wh/kg.
This discrepancy stems from the battery’s structural design. Unlike gasoline, lithium-ion batteries contain non-energy-generating components such as electrodes and electrolytes, which lower overall energy density. Additionally, the capacity of electrode materials limits performance. Positive electrodes, crucial for battery performance, heavily influence battery efficiency. Practical cathode materials include layered lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides, spinel lithium manganate, and olivine lithium iron phosphate.
However, the growing demand for electric vehicles hampers lithium-ion battery development. Key challenges include enhancing cathode material capacity to meet high energy density and power demands. Today’s commercial carbon anodes offer capacities up to 330-360mAh/g, while cathodes max out at 120-250mAh/g—a significant disparity. Moreover, cathode materials are costly due to reliance on scarce transition metals like cobalt and nickel. These metals are finite and environmentally harmful when mined excessively, posing sustainability concerns.
### Solutions
To boost battery energy density, reducing weight has emerged as a pivotal strategy. While lithium metal offers high energy-to-mass ratios, practical alternatives involve lighter-weight designs. One promising solution is the lithium-air battery, boasting a theoretical energy density of 12,000Wh/kg, comparable to gasoline. This makes it feasible to replace fossil fuels entirely, enabling longer-range electric vehicles.
Despite these advancements, further research is needed to optimize lithium-air batteries for practical use. By addressing current limitations and leveraging innovative technologies, we can pave the way for more efficient, sustainable energy storage solutions.